Internal dosimetry is used to assess the committed dose due to the ingestion of radionuclides in the human body. The FDA readily accepts dosimetry calculations when reviewing new IND applications, speeding up the approval process Internal dosimetry in drug development is mainly used from two points of view [72]. For early phase I or phase I clinical trials, dosimetry is performed after administration of radiopharmaceuticals to provide standard diagnostic dose estimates and to define dose-limiting organs in a limited number of healthy volunteers. A second type of dosimetry is used to monitor treatment, and therefore performed before therapeutic administration of drugs for all patients undergoing treatment. Organ-specific dosimetry estimates (target and baseline) and total dose equivalent are calculated in diagnostic studies, while treatment planning focuses regionally on dosimetric estimates that correspond to the treatment area [69,71,72]. In general, reference fields with field sizes of 10 × 10 cm2 in CoPs are recommended. In the presence of a magnetic field and in orthogonal MRI-Linac systems (Figure 6), the following characteristics of a reference field change: In DIN 6800-2 (March 2008), Table 6, IAEA TRS 398, Table 14 and AAPM TG 51, Table I, the correction factors kQ are indicated as a function of the radiation quality index Q for different chambers under reference conditions. The corresponding kQ value can be interpolated for the cylindrical chamber PTW-31013. The values in Table 6 of DIN 6800-2 (March 2008) are replaced by a polynomial 4. Table 4. Overview of the work on simulations with the types of chambers studied and the relevant characteristics of the methodology used.
The definition of the orientation of the chamber with respect to the magnetic field vector is given in section 4.1 and Figure 7. In order to account for stochastic health risk, calculations are made to convert the absorbed physical dose into equivalent and effective doses, the details of which depend on the type of radiation and the biological context. For radiation protection and dosimetry evaluation applications, the ICRP and the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) have published recommendations and data that are used to calculate them. With the rapid increase in clinical treatments with MRI-based magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) guided radiotherapy (MRgRT) based on MRI-Linacs, a consistent, harmonized and sustainable basis for reference dosimetry in MRI-Linacs in the form of a Code of Practice (CoP) is needed. Since there are several CoP for reference dosimetry in conventional linacs MV photon beams (Lillicrap et al 1990, Almond et al 1999, Andreo et al 2000, Aalbers et al 2008), which led to good consistency in the methods applied (Saiful Huq et al 2001, Andreo et al 2002, 2013, Perik et al 2013), it is very preferable such a CoP for reference dosimetry in MRI linacs in addition to existing CoP for conventional linacs. Fricke dosimetry consists of measuring the conversion of iron ions present in the solution due to ionizing radiation into iron ions by spectrophotometry. The Fricke dosimeter consists of a 96% aqueous solution, so its radiation attenuation is very similar to that of water and can be used in the dose range of 5 Gy–400 Gy with dose rates up to 106 Gy/s. Radiation dosimetry in the fields of health physics and radiation protection is the measurement, calculation and evaluation of the dose of ionizing radiation absorbed by an object, usually the human body. This applies both indoors, through ingestion or inhalation of radioactive substances, and outdoors through irradiation from radiation sources.
The magnetic field influences the calibration coefficients of the ionization chambers used in CoP (Meijsing et al 2009, Reynolds et al 2013, O`Brien et al 2016). In order to differentiate in the reference conditions (i.e. the presence of the magnetic field) between the beam used to calibrate the chamber and the MRI-Linac beam, the magnetic field correction factor is introduced by O`Brien et al (2016), van Asselen et al (2018) and Malkov and Rogers (2018), using slightly different notations from the measurement equation with different terminology and symbols. Van Asselen et al. (2018) use the following formulation: the evaluation of internal dosimetry is based on various monitoring, bioassay or radiological imaging techniques, while external dosimetry is based on measurements taken with a dosimeter or derived from measurements from other radiation protection instruments. In summary, the presence of small air spaces around ionization chambers increases the variation of reaction change due to small variations in positioning that affect the size and symmetry of the air spaces. In addition, the air space has a significant effect on the change in response compared to none (or a water-filled air space). While the first effect seems to be mainly relevant for 1.5 T MRI linacs, the second has a significant impact on the two field strengths used in commercially available systems, 0.35 T and 1.5 T. In addition to the above factors, the influence of air gaps on chamber response depends on the orientation of the chamber axis, the beam axis and the magnetic field. In general, it is concluded that the use of solid phantoms or leak-proof sleeves for reference dosimetry or quality assurance measures in MRI linacs is not appropriate due to the unavoidable presence of submillimetre air slats and the unknown distribution of air gap thickness. Instead, the sensitive volume of the ionization chamber must be completely immersed in water for reproducible results, and the leak-proof chamber appears less suitable for reference dosimetry in MRI linacs.
SSDLs are recognized and accredited by the country`s metrological authority, such as the National Laboratory, as it is responsible for transmitting quantities to the end-user in their country to ensure appropriate metrological consistency between users against their standards [1, 2]. Since it is possible to find more than one SSD in a country, an internal network must be set up and a regular comparison carried out by the national laboratory. To meet these premises, radiation detectors must be calibrated according to a universal protocol agreed between professional societies, and quantities must be linked to BIPM standards, as decided in the Metro Convention. The propagation of these quantities to the end-user is carried out by the calibration laboratory in each country, either nationally or secondarily, according to a logical chain of events as described in Figure 1. The relationship between the endpoint and radiation dose factors was variable, with some studies showing a strong correlation while others showing no correlation.639-642 Some of the factors that make it more difficult to establish a dose-response relationship for TaRT compared to external beam radiation therapy may include the relative uncertainty associated with TaRT dose calculations. the heterogeneity of dose deposition that occurs with TaRT, the effects of dose rate and the excretion/clearance variation between the active substance and the patient. Although most normal organ tolerance values for external radiation have been determined using high-dose rate radiation and vary with fraction size, the dose rate for TaRT is often small and variable, limiting the validity of extrapolation of high-dose rate tolerance values to those expected for TaRT. Fractionation of TaRT can increase the total tolerated dose of radionuclides, as in the case of an external beam.53,210 Several studies have shown how biological factors affect tolerance, but are not included in standard dose and toxicity ratios. Activity is usually reported per kg or per square meter, as is often the case with chemotherapy. The most suitable candidate for this is now alanine.